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Los Angeles [ lɒs ændʒələs ] (from Spanish Los Ángeles [ losaŋxeles ] The angels’), or simply LA , is the largest city in the U.S. state of California . It lies on the Pacific Ocean and the Los Angeles River .
Los Angeles has a population of 3,831,868 (2009) [1] in the city after New York ‘s second largest city in the United States . [2] With 11.8 million inhabitants in the agglomeration , [3] almost 13 million inhabitants in the metropolitan region ( Metropolitan Statistical Area) and 17.8 million in the extended metropolitan area is the Greater Los Angeles Area among the largest metropolitan regions in the world on 17 Place. [4] The population of Los Angeles are Angelenos ( ændʒəlinoʊz ) called.
Los Angeles is the capital and administrative seat of Los Angeles County . The city is the economic, business and culture of California with numerous universities, colleges, research institutes, theaters and museums. Los Angeles is the world’s largest site for the aircraft – and space industry and known for the resident film and television industry ( Hollywood ) and music scene.

he city was on the 4th September 1781 officially by Governor Felipe de Neve as El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles ( Spanish “The Village of Queen of Angels”) was founded. [5] The current name of Los Angeles, a shortening of the foundation’s name to “the angel”.
Widespread originally was the unofficial name of El Pueblo de Nuestra Senora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciuncula [ pweβlo el de la Reina de los nwestɾa seɲoɾa Anxeles del rio de poɾsiuŋkula ] (The Village of Our Lady , Queen of the angels of the river Portiuncula ). [5]
Contrary to popular opinion, that the original name was so scientists from official documents of Governor Felipe de Neve, General Commander Theodore de Croix and Viceroy Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursua noted that the settlement was simply the name of El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles was wearing.
Which is often (also colloquially) used abbreviation “LA”. Because of the importance of the Spanish city name the city bears the nickname City of Angels (City of Angels) .
Geography

Geography

Satellite image of the Bay of Santa Monica
The ancient town and the suburbs of Los Angeles are located in a hilly coastal region average 100 m above sea level . [6] In the west and south of the city adjacent to the Santa Monica Bay of the Pacific Ocean . In the east and north it is surrounded by mountain ranges. Also in the north of the city, the San Fernando Valley , where around a third of residents in single family homes. The valley is the Griffith Park and the Santa Monica Mountains from Hollywood and cut off the city center.
The administrative city has an area of 1290.6 km. Of these, 1214.9 km ² of land area and 75.7 sq km water area. The urban area extends 71 km in the north-south direction and 47 km from east to west. It is through a system of freeways out of steel and concrete structures together. The city is burdened by the largest motor vehicle density in the world, the automobile and industrial emissions have become a pressing environmental problem. Therefore, Los Angeles is one of the cities with the largest exposure to smog in the United States.
The city is sometimes called the city horizontally (horizontal city), because they are relatively few skyscrapers and owns the entire metropolitan area is very spacious. High land prices in downtown Los Angeles lead to the same, high-rise buildings that now prevail there also. The agglomeration, ie continuous built-up area occupies an area of 4320 square kilometers.
The metropolitan region of Los Angeles there are several definitions:
The Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) includes the 15 districts ( districts ) of Los Angeles and the two counties Los Angeles (Los Angeles Metropolitan Division-Long Beach-Glendale) and Orange (Metropolitan Division Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario). It has a floor area of 12 562 square kilometers.
For Combined Statistical Area (CSA) includes 173 separate towns. It includes the counties Los Angeles, San Bernardino , Riverside , Ventura and Orange. The extended metropolitan region thus extends to the border of Nevada and has an area of 87 941 square kilometers. It will be only a fraction of this area of urban use, and most of the area consists of uninhabited parts of the Mojave Desert and the Joshua Tree National Park , located in Riverside and San Bernardino County.
Geology

3D representation of the Los Angeles Basin using a satellite image

By the Northridge earthquake of 1994 damaged bridge, 10 Freeway at La Cienega Boulevard
On the eastern edge of the metropolitan region runs the San Andreas Fault , also located directly under the city, the Puente Hills Fault . The resulting seismic hazard explains the strict building codes throughout the Southern California earthquake zone are applied. Since 1800, Los Angeles has nine large earthquakes with a magnitude six and above, and shaken by thousands of smaller quakes. Many buildings are earthquake-proof construction, which reduces the number of deaths in earthquakes much.
Until 1958, there was also a statutory requirement that the upper limit for building 45 meters and 14 floors is not allowed to exceed. An exception was the only city hall in 1928 with 138 meters. Earthquake-proof constructions made after the law unnecessary. The hazards caused by earthquakes, the departure of the dense development and establishment of a mission statement, which Los Angeles rather a kind of “City in the Garden” (city garden) should be standing, as the idea behind this provision. This is also an explanation for the expansion of the city.
The worst earthquake in recent history was the Fort Tejon earthquake, on 9 January 1857, near the present communities Wrightwood and Palmdale . The quake of magnitude 7.9 caused only minor damage, since the region was inhabited at that time only slightly. Such a quake would occur today, would arise a loss of several billion U.S. dollars, the loss of human life would be significant.
On 10 March 1933 called for an earthquake of magnitude 6.4 120 fatalities. In Long Beach and other places property damage was 50 million U.S. dollars. Many of the damaged buildings were not built to withstand earthquakes. Another major earthquake occurred on 9 February 1971 with a strength of 6.6. The so-called San Fernando earthquake of 1971 (including Sylmar earthquake ) caused in the San Fernando Valley, a damage of 500 million U.S. dollars and demanded 65 deaths. The earthquake on 28 June 1991 had a magnitude of 5.8, but caused no surface rupture due to its depth. It still caused damage amounting to 40 million U.S. dollars, mainly in the San Gabriel Valley .
On 17 January 1994 an earthquake of magnitude 6.7 shook the city of Los Angeles. The epicenter of the Northridge earthquake was in the Reseda neighborhood in the San Fernando Valley. 57 people were killed, 12,000 people were injured. Many public transport links and an estimated 100,000 buildings were damaged or destroyed. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to property in the amount of EUR 40 billion U.S. dollars. [7]
Published in 2008 the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Southern California Earthquake Center, a new study. The researchers predicted it for California by 2038 with a 99.7 percent probability of a severe earthquake of magnitude 6.7. A quake of magnitude 7.5 or more was predicted with a 46-percent probability. The Greater Los Angeles is slightly more at risk than San Francisco in the north of the state. Thus, the possibility of an earthquake of intensity 6.7 in Los Angeles at 67 percent and in San Francisco at 63 percent. [8]
On 29 July 2008 was registered at 11:42 clock time an earthquake of magnitude 5.4. The epicenter was located about 46 km east-south-east from the city center, near Chino Hills . [9]
City arrangement

View from Mount Wilson to the Los Angeles Basin at night
Los Angeles is divided into 15 counties (districts). The population figures refer to the census of 1 April 2000. [10]

Climate
The city is situated in the subtropical climate zone . The average annual temperature is 18 degrees Celsius and the annual rainfall 305 mm on average. The warmest months are July and August with an average of 22.8 degrees Celsius and the coldest January with 13.2 degrees Celsius on average. Almost the entire annual rainfall occurs during the period from November to April, accordingly, it is mostly dry from May to October.
In summer, prevailing in Los Angeles daytime temperatures usually around 22 to 25 degrees Celsius. Without the location on the Pacific coast, it would be even warmer as the wind weakens, the temperatures of the sea. In winter, it’s a bit colder, with temperatures rarely fall below 15 degrees Celsius. At night the temperature drops from an average of about ten degrees Celsius. The humidity is 50 to 75 percent.
Typical of the climate in the region of Los Angeles are also several, relatively clearly distinguishable minor climatic zones. The reason for this lies in the different mountain ranges, which the Los Angeles basin, for example, from the San Fernando Valley and other inland areas further away. In the San Fernando Valley, for example, it is often several degrees warmer in summer than the coast, while in winter it is noticeably cooler there.
Every two or three years there will be heat waves, where the temperatures can climb above 40 degrees Celsius. This is caused by the so-called Santa Ana winds , which the Santa Ana Mountains come out of the city lying east of the desert. Here there are always extensive forest and bush fires. On 3 Died October 1933 in Griffith Park at one of the worst bush fires in the United States 29 firefighters. Between late October and early November 1993 fire destroyed the city of Los Angeles area thousands of hectares of cultivated land. [11] The highest

The big concern is air pollution – high levels of ozone – nitrogen oxides – and hydrocarbon – in Los Angeles, caused by the resident industry and traffic. The Greater Los Angeles / Long Beach / Riverside counted in 2007 after a report by the American Lung Association to the urban area with the highest air pollution in the United States. [15] In addition to industries and everyday traffic of private cars and trucks the air pollution to a large extent the Single-port traffic are attributed, ie the trucks that carry cargo between the quay and storage and which are often the engines at idle. Remedy to provide electric heavy trucks that will be introduced since 2009. [16]
The pollutant concentrations are particularly in the morning and evening rush-hour traffic is highest. The photochemical smog , whose main component is ozone, however, reached its highest concentration at noon. Since the city is surrounded by mountain ranges, the air exchange with the surrounding area is inhibited. The sea breeze reaches only the Los Angeles basin, without the temperature inversion break over the city.
Ozone and other chemicals in the population lead to coughing, eye irritation, headache, and pulmonary dysfunction. Since the early 1980s, efforts to solve the problem are made. So still 1979, 120 days a year increased pollution levels were measured in 1996 – after the introduction of catalytic converters – just seven days. In the new millennium, the number of Smogtagen is decreased almost to zero. Despite the greater Los Angeles dismisses still one of the nation’s largest quantities of toxic gases into the atmosphere. The main reason is the low level of public transport.
Air pollution in Los Angeles endangered, the more remote mountain lakes and snow-covered regions of the Sierra Nevada and is responsible for the death of forests . Strong winds carry pollutants up to Palm Springs in Riverside County , where they lead to increased pollutant concentrations.

The first European explorers in the region was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo , the 1542 land for Spain claimed, but without creating a settlement. 1771 Spanish monks founded the Franciscan Order of the mission “San Gabriel” near Whittier Narrows, which later formed the starting point for the settlement of the region. The Spanish missions in California should expand the influence of Spain and the power of the Church. To protect them from attacks of the local indigenous people to protect the mission was mounted by a fort.
After the mission had been established, sent the Spanish governor of California, Felipe de Neve, eleven families to till the land. On 4 September 1781 the community of Los Angeles with 44 settlers in the area of Tongvá Native-founded. At that time there was still mainly animal husbandry.
1803 sent U.S. President Thomas Jefferson , the officers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark with the mission to the region to explore the land to the west coast. After eight months, the expedition reached thanks to the support of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Ocean coast. In the following decades established the first American settlers in the region.
1821 was Los Angeles to Mexico , which had won its independence after a long war of Spain. In 1835 the settlement of the Mexican Congress to the city and was also the capital of Mexico’s most northern region of Alta California collected. The second part of the decree, however, was never enforced, and revised again soon. So there was Monterey to 1849, the capital of California. The population grew to 1836 in 2228 to residents to temporarily go back again later. Until the mid-19th Century Los Angeles was a Mexican community, which was composed mainly of American settlers, poor Chinese laborers and a few wealthy Mexican landowners.
1846 proclaimed the independence of the schoolmaster William Ide California. The Republic existed for only a short time. During the Mexican-American War 1846-1848 Alta California were so busy and also Los Angeles by U.S. soldiers and U.S. affiliated. In 1848, north of Sacramento, found gold, which the famous gold rush triggered. Many gold seekers arrived in the region, which also benefited Los Angeles by meat, fruit and vegetables to the Digger sold.
Industrialization

Oil production facilities near Los Angeles 1896

Construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in the Mojave Desert , 1909

Quinn’s Superba Theatre, 518 South Broadway, 1920
The place was christened on 4 April 1850, the U.S. city charter as part of the founding of the State of California by the United States, he then had 1610 inhabitants. From the Civil War (1861-1865) between the well-trodden from the United States, South – the Confederacy – and the remaining in the Union Northern States , Los Angeles remained virtually untouched.
1861/62 floods and a subsequent devastating drought led to the ruin of many specialized livestock on farms. At the same time began, mainly by real estate speculation, a new upswing. The result was an increase in land prices and the influx of many Chinese, Japanese, European and Jewish immigrants.
The rejection of Chinese immigrants through large parts of the U.S. population increased in the economic crisis of the 1870s to an anti-Chinese hysteria. On 24 October 1871 it was in Los Angeles to a racist uprising after a war between rival Chinese gangs happened to a white man was killed. In the course of the uprising occurred mob of more than 500 European origin people in Chinatown, killing 19 of the residents. Those killed only one of the original band was involved in war. In addition, a white man had been killed, who had tried to prevent the killing.
The largest immigrant group came from the Midwest, from states like Iowa and Indiana , and triggered a new political class from the old Mexican elite. Soon large farms were parceled out the old and the population grew. Between 1870 and 1900 increased the population of the town of about 6,000 to about 102,000 inhabitants. In the ten years to 1910, that number tripled to 320,000 more inhabitants, with this growth also contributed extensive reorganizations, including the cities of Wilmington and San Pedro (both 1909) in the South and Hollywood (1910) in the West. From 1899 to 1914 in San Pedro today was the Port of Los Angeles built.
As an important driver of development for the next few decades should prove to the railroad. In 1869 the first railway line was opened in Los Angeles. It ran over 34 kilometers from the city center today to San Pedro then independent, now home of the Port of Los Angeles. But only after the connection to the Union Pacific Railroad in 1876 and the railway line to Santa Fe in 1885, accelerated the growth of the city. At that time, new irrigation techniques tested and found suitable for the region-growing products such as oranges. The city soon became a synonym for good health, a clean environment, abundant sun and endless citrus groves.
From 1890, coal promoted. As far more important for the further development proved to be the extensive oil reserves beneath the city, the first time in 1892 near the present-day Dodger Stadium were drilled. From then on, spread the oil rigs in a short time in many parts of the region. In the first half of the 20th Century Los Angeles was one of the most important centers of oil production in 1923 was even a quarter of world output produced in the region of Los Angeles. Even today, the oil production plays a certain role.
To ensure the enormous growth also for the future, made ​​themselves the leaders of the city in the years before the turn of the century concerned about the water supply of Los Angeles. For a semi-arid climatic zone situated town was and is a very important issue. Until that was Los Angeles through the nearby Los Angeles River supplies drinking and industrial water. Not more than its water supplies were sufficient, in 1913 became the first in the North Los Angeles aqueduct built, the water is 300 kilometers away from the Owens Valley to Los Angeles promoted. Using the cheap water supplies Los Angeles was in the years before and after 1910 einzugemeinden able, many surrounding communities, including Wilmington , San Pedro (both 1909) and Hollywood (1910).
1910 discovered the Los Angeles film producer, the region as an ideal production site and moved from New York and Chicago to Hollywood. In the following years, achieved Gilbert M. Anderson , with its Western and Mack Sennett and his slapstick comedies worldwide success. As the 1927 film The Jazz Singer to break the sound film, helped put an upswing again. The film industry based in Hollywood was one of the most important industries in the United States and attracted many newcomers to Los Angeles. The first film in color Monumental – David O. Selznick movie Gone With the Wind – was released in 1939 and won ten Oscars .
In the 1920s it came to the incorporation of numerous other neighboring communities such Sawtelle (1922), Hyde Park (1923), Eagle Rock (1923), Venice (1925), Watts (1926), Barnes City (1927) and Tujunga (1932). Santa Monica and Beverly Hills , which are considered economically and culturally as parts of Los Angeles could, for administrative purposes but retain their independence until today.
Among the important events of the thirties certainly include the Olympic Games of 1932 . For the first time in the history of the Games was on this occasion for the male participants Olympic Village built. Today the village is a part of the district of Baldwin Hills . In the same year 1932 the population of Los Angeles rose to over one million.
Business Center

1938 North Figueroa Bridge
Already in the middle of the 20th Century was the little suburban house with swimming pool and double garage to become a permanent symbol of the city. A major upswing during the Second World War, one with the aviation and aerospace industry, which settled in large numbers due to the war in the greater Los Angeles.
Numerous German artists and intellectuals chose Los Angeles as a refuge from the Nazis . These included Bertolt Brecht , Marlene Dietrich , Lion Feuchtwanger , Otto Klemperer , Fritz Lang , Ernst Lubitsch , Heinrich Mann , Thomas Mann , Luise Rainer and Billy Wilder . But also artists from other countries here to find a new home: Luis Buñuel , Jean Renoir , Igor Stravinsky , Arturo Toscanini and many others. Many great works of poets, conductors, directors and painters emerged in exile, the refugees made ​​the Los Angeles of the 1940s into a vibrant center of European culture.
But even with racist violence, the city had continued to face. 1943 saw a series of riots, as the Zoot Suit Riots were included in the story. It inflamed among soldiers stationed in the city and Mexican-American youth gangs, led by so-called Pachucos , because of the Zoot Suit , which they wore, were known.
Already in the twenties had, despite a high-performance light rail system, the automobile as the preferred transport of Angelenos developed. Thus, in this decade in Los Angeles more cars relative to population than any other American city. On 1 January 1940, the Arroyo Seco Parkway , the first urban freeway, between Pasadena and opened in the northern city center. In order for the course for the further development was characterized. After the war, bought companies like General Motors , Greyhound Lines and the Firestone Tire & Rubber Company on the transport network and then dismantled it – this process came as the Great American streetcar scandal in history. In its place arose an extensive motorway network. Following the premise of the 1950s, citizens should not live more than six miles from a highway. In 1960, the first office tower in the formerly low silhouette of the city was built, the tallest structure until then, the Rathaus ( City Hall ) in 1928 was.
In August 1965 there were serious riots in Los Angeles’ southern district of Watts . As the Watts riot designated within six days of rioting claimed 32 lives and left 874 injured. The material damage amounted to 45 million U.S. dollars.

Train the “Gold Line” of metro Los Angeles near Pasadena
The rapidly growing automobile traffic from the late 1970s led to initial problems. smog , decentralization and a strong increase in crime shaped the image of the city. Since the early 1990s, but again LA is working on building a light rail transit system , after the public transport of the metropolis had almost three decades to make do with buses. The financial and administrative burden for the construction of the metro is much greater than for the construction of the original network, since not only the city is now built at much higher densities, but the construction of underground lines and consideration of earthquake must be taken.
The Los Angeles riots of 29 April to 2 May 1992 featured one of the largest race riots in U.S. history was triggered by the dar. acquittals of four white police officers race to the mistreatment of African American Rodney King were indicted. The rioting, 53 people died, 2383 injured, the damage amounted to 800 million U.S. dollars. [17]

The skyline of Los Angeles
With the end of the Cold War in 1990 was an important industry of the city’s air and space industry, hard hit. After the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 and the reorientation of defense strategy to fight terrorism, this industry has another big economic and strategic importance to the U.S.. Beginning of the 21st Century, the status of the city as a cultural and economic center of the region without controversy. Problems faced by the city, are unemployment, the huge traffic, pollution, and recurrent race riots.
Population

Religions

Catholic Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels

Mormon Temple (“Temple Los Angeles, California”)
Los Angeles is home to adherents of many religions. Among the more than 100 Christian denominations is the Roman Catholic Church because of the high number of Hispanics dominate. Other major Christian denominations are the Adventists , Baptists , Lutherans , Methodists , Orthodox churches and Jehovah’s Witnesses . Smaller religious groups are followers of the Bahai religion , of Buddhism , Hinduism , Islam , the Jewish religion, Mormonism , Sikhism , Sufism and Zoroastrianism .
The Roman Catholic church in the region is in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles organized. It was the first Established as a diocese in June 1922 Los Angeles-San Diego and 11 July 1936 to the archbishopric collected. With 4.2 million believers (2004), it is considered the largest diocese in the United States. [18] It is typical of a cardinal seats the Catholic Church, whose archbishop to perform his pastoral duties six auxiliary bishops are available. The ecclesiastical province includes the dioceses of today, Fresno , Monterey , Orange , San Bernardino and San Diego . Archbishop of Los Angeles since 1985, Roger Michael Mahony . In 2002, designed by the Spanish architect Rafael Moneo completed Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels (Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels) is the Episcopal Church of the Archdiocese.
The city is built with the 1956 “Los Angeles California Temple” (following the Salt Lake Temple) second largest sanctuary of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). The temple is 112 feet long, 82 meters wide and has a height of 78 meters. At the top of the temple tower is a statue of the angel and prophet Moroni appropriate. [19]
Los Angeles has with 490,000 people (2001) on which (according to New York and Miami ) third-largest Jewish community in the United States. [20] Many synagogues are located in the city, most in the San Fernando Valley and West Los Angeles.
Due to the many immigrants from Asia, the Buddhist community recorded in recent years a strong increase. Los Angeles currently has the largest Buddhist population in the United States and hosts a wide variety of systems and schools of Buddhism . There are more than 300 Buddhist temples across the city.
Practiced in Los Angeles since the early 20th Century, many Hindu swamis and gurus . The Self-Realization Fellowship (community of self-realization) is headquartered in Hollywood and has a private park in Pacific Palisades . The non-profit religious society was founded in 1920 in Los Angeles by Paramahansa Yogananda founded as a “church of all religions.” Also, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi practiced in the city. He brought Transcendental Meditation , one of the ideas in Vedas based meditation technique on one of his world travels to Los Angeles in 1959.
Population Development

Downtown L. A.
The population explosion in the 20th Century – 1900, the city had only 102,000 inhabitants – Los Angeles met entirely unprepared. The inhabitants were spread over a large area, and several low-rise buildings (commercial buildings, shopping centers) were constructed. The population of Los Angeles will also now be continuous; a significant role is also played by immigration from Latin America (especially Mexico ) and Asia . More than a third of the population of Los Angeles was born outside the United States.
In Los Angeles, people from 140 countries, they speak 224 different languages. According to Census 2000, the 1.7 million Hispanics ( Latinos ) accounted for 46.5 percent of the total population of Los Angeles. In a few years, more people in Los Angeles speak Spanish than English. The Latinos have a much higher birth rate than the English-speaking inhabitants of the city.
A rapidly increasing population are Asians, and immigrants from the Pacific Islands. They account for 11.0 percent of the total population of the city (African American: 12.0 percent). These are mostly Japanese, Chinese, Koreans, Vietnamese, Thais, Filipinos and Iranians. The natives play with 29 412 persons (0.8 percent), only a minor role in the life of the city. 29.7 percent of the residents of Los Angeles include the white population group (without Latin) at.
According to the census of 2000 there were 3.69482 million inhabitants in the metropolitan area, 1,275,412 households, and 798 719 families who were resident in the city. The population density was 4923 inhabitants per square kilometer. The median of the income per household was U.S. $ 36 687, the median income for a family of U.S. $ 39,942. The largest groups by ethnic origin in the city were: German 167 160 (4.5 percent), Ireland 139 188 (3.8 percent), English 127 632 (3.5 percent), Italians, 95 263 (2.6 percent), Russians 87 419 (2 , 4 percent), Poland 56 670 (1.5 percent) and French 49 415 (1.3 percent). [21]
On 1 July 2006 were living in the city of Los Angeles administrative 3,877,129 people. [2] The population density was 3191 inhabitants per square kilometer. In the Metropolitan Region (Metropolitan Statistical Area), there were 12,950,129 people. The population density was 1031 inhabitants per square kilometer. In the extended metropolitan region (Combined Statistical Area), there were 17,775,984 people. [4] The population density was 202 inhabitants per square kilometer.
The following table shows the population of the city proper to the respective territorial status. From 1800 to 2000, is Census 2008 results and an estimate of the California Department of Finance. [22]

Walmart(officiallyWal-MartStores,Inc. ) is a U.S. multinational that specializes in retail , founded by Sam Walton and now headed by his eldest son, S. Robson Walton .
Founded under that name in 1962 , it has grown rapidly in Arkansas , then led all United States to begin to internationalize from 1991 . In Europe , the stores are present in Great Britain under the name Asda . Walmart is now attacking the market Asia . Based in China since 1996 , the group employed about thirty thousand workers in this country in 2006 5 . It is also present in Japan under the name Seiyu . In 2005, 20 million customers attended the Walmart on average every day 5 .
In 2010, with sales amounting to 421.849 billion of U.S. dollars and 16.389 billion dollars in profits 6 , Walmart has retained its position as the world leader in terms of turnover. With San Diego Homes For Rent 2.1 million employees working in over 6,100 supermarkets and hypermarkets (as mining jobs well as in subsidiaries), the group can claim the title of largest company in the world. It is the largest private employer in the United States with 1.2 million employees, called “associates,” but also that of Mexico under the name Walmex.
Walmart is the largest general retailer in the United States with 3,500 stores and 20% estimated market share and the largest distributor of toys with a 45% estimated market share, having surpassed Toys “R” Us in the late 1990′s .

The beginnings in Arkansas
Walton’s 5 & 10
The story of Walmart can go back to the 1940s when Sam Walton began his career in retail. He was offered just before graduating from the University of Missouri at Columbia , two positions in retail, at Sears and JC Penney . He accepted the offer of work of the second and began to work in a JC Penney store in Des Moines , in the Iowa , June 3, 1940, at a salary of 75 USD per month. During this work he was able to meet James Cash corporate clothing Penney, founder of this chain of stores, during a visit. He remained at JC Penney for eight months.
In September 1945, Sam Walton to George Scharlott bought the franchise and the lease of a Ben Franklin in Newport in the Arkansas . This store was part of a chain run by the Butler Brothers , a regional retailer. After three years in the business, Walton increased annual sales of 80 000 USD to 225 000 USD in 1948. Despite this, the officer, PK Holmes, decided not to renew the lease and Walton was forced to move before the end of 1950. Walton wanted to buy a five-and-dime Jim Dodson in Siloam Springs , in Arkansas , but the two disagreed on the purchase price (a difference of 5 000 USD ). On May 9, 1950, Walton purchased a store of Luther E. Harrison in Bentonville , Arkansas, and opened Walton’s 5 & 10 . Later, the Ozark Mountain village with 2900 inhabitants become the headquarters of the future Walmart.
Walton was always looking for the best possible agreements with suppliers and he realized he could increase sales by giving customers discounts it obtained. In 1962, he had nine Walton’s Stores . Inspired by the success of chains, Walton opened the first store of its supply chain in Rogers , Arkansas, that year. Responsible for procurement and maintenance of signage, the assistant Sam, Bob Bogle, proposed the name “Wal-Mart” for the new channel. In 1967, the company grew vps hosting and eventually owning 24 stores scattered in Arkansas, and reached 12.6 million of U.S. dollars in sales.
In 1968, the company opened its first store outside of Arkansas, in Sikeston , the Missouri and Claremore in Oklahoma . Sat preferred to settle in small villages rather than in large cities, and had 78 stores in 1974. An inter-department store was created to improve communications and controls, and three years later, sales more than tripled, from $ 167.5 million to 479 million U.S. dollars and the number of stores increased to 163 . The chain continued to grow in the following decades.
Creation and expansion of the company
The company was founded on 31 October 1969 under the name Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.. and in 1970 online snow gear she opened its headquarters in Bentonville , Arkansas, and its first distribution center. The company then had 38 stores scattered in Arkansas and employed 1500 people to 44.2 million dollars in sales. The company went public in 1972 and appeared the same year the New York Stock Exchange . At this point, Wal-Mart Cell Phone Accessories was operating in five states: Arkansas, Kansas , Louisiana , Missouri and Oklahoma and arrived in Tennessee in 1973, Kentucky and Mississippi in 1974. When the company opened in Texas in 1975, it had 125 stores and 7500 employees, a turnover of 340.3 million dollars.
Wal-Mart continued to grow rapidly during the 1980s, and during his twenty-fifth anniversary in 1987 , the company had 1,198 stores and sales reaching $ 15.9 billion for 200,000 employees. This year was also marked by the launch of satellites intended auto insurance rates for internal use (an investment amounted to $ 24 million at the time), connecting all points of sale of the company headquarters in Bentonville. At the time, was the largest network of satellites private, and it allowed the company to transmit the inventory , sales, and to communicate instantly with the various stores. The following year, Sam Walton left his place of CEO Chicago Criminal Attorney David Glass. However, Walton remained in the company under the title “Chairman of the Corporate Board of Directors’ and corporate restructuring managers also” seniors “and gave promotions to managers to acquire greater responsibility .
Also in 1988 , the first Wal-Mart Supercenter opened in Washington , Missouri . Wal-Mart expanded its concept superstore during the 1990s and, soon after, the company surpassed Toys “R” Us to sell toys.
The 1990
The 1990s were a period of unprecedented growth and innovation in various business management. In 1990, the company’s revenues quadruplnt to 32 billion more than in previous years and Wal-Mart buys The McLane Company, then sold to Berkshire Hathaway in 2003. In 1991, the company is moving to electronic cigarette review Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , New Hampshire , Massachusetts , New Jersey and New York . That same year, Wal-Mart launches internationally by opening its first store in Mexico . The company also repurchased Western Merchandisers, Inc.. to Amarillo , in Texas . In 1991 the brand was launched “Sam’s American Choice”. Sam Walton retired April 5, 1992, and his eldest son, S. Robson Walton , succeeded him as Chairman of the Board of Directors April 7, 1992. This year, Wal-Mart operates in 45 U.S. states plus the Idaho , the Montana , the Oregon , and Puerto Rico .
In 1993, the international division of Wal-Mart promotes President Bobby Martin. The company complete its expansion in the United States with the entry into Alaska , Hawaii , Rhode Island and Washington . In December 1993, Wal-Mart for the first time reached $ 1 billion in sales in one week.
Wal-Mart bought PACE Membership Warehouse at 91 Kmart stores and 122 Woolco in Canada in 1994. The same year, Wal-Mart opened three clubs in Hong Kong , reaching a total of 123 stores in Canada and 96 in Mexico. Later that year, the program called “Code weight loss pills Adam” is launched for missing children. The project was called so because of the history of Adam Walsh , a 6 year old died in a store in Florida and found dead in 1981. All other retail chains have adopted similar programs since.
In 1995, Wal-Mart has 1,995 Discount Stores , 239 Supercenters , 433 Sam’s Club and 276 International Stores , combining sales of $ 93.6 billion and employing 675,000 people. Wal-Mart enters the fiftieth American state, the Vermont and continues its international expansion with the market of South America : three units in Argentina and five in Brazil . The company enters the Chinese market in 1996 through a joint venture .
In 1997, Wal-Mart replaces Woolworth’s on the Dow Jones Industrial Average . The company exceeds for the first time the symbolic $ 100 billion of sales in the year with 118.1 billion. That same year, Wal-Mart bought 21 stores Wertkauf in Germany and launches its OneSource nutrition center.
In 1998, Wal-Mart created a new concept with three stores in Arkansas : The Neighborhood Market (“shops” or “convenience” in Quebec). They are used primarily to buy food and are designed with the aim of attracting the consumer through a parking easy and saves time on Plastic Storage Containers queuing.
Wal-Mart also runs the Wal-Mart Television Network, an extensive network of advertising inside the stores, enabling customers to be aware of current promotions, concerts ahead of trailers for DVD releases .
In February 2005, one study estimates that the network is watched by 130 million people per month, with an average of 7 minutes viewing each time a person comes into a Wal-Mart.
Wal-Mart is electronic cigarette also positioned in South Korea in 1998 by an agreement of joint venture . The company left the Korean market in July 2006 after losing millions of dollars in the fierce competition that pitted the major distributors.
In 1999, Wal-Mart employs engagement ring 1.14 million associates , making the company the largest private employer in the world. Taking advantage of results always fabulous, the company redeemed the same year ASDA Group plc, a distributor manager 229 stores in the UK for 10 billion.
From 2000 to the present
Old logo, from 1992 to 2008
In 2000 , when H. Lee Scott was named President and CEO of the company, sales increased further to total $ 165 billion. In 2002 Wal-Mart entered the list Fortune 500 which lists the world’s largest companies with a turnover of 219.8 billion dollars to 6.7 billion profit. Then, the company is ranked first every year except 2006.
In 2004 , the group acquired the supermarket chain Amigo in Puerto Rico for $ 17 billion.
Employees of a Walmart in Jonquiere , in Quebec , is syndicalisent and become the first unionized Wal-Mart employees in North America . Five months later, Walmart announced the closure of this store, order of the Board .
In 2005 , the company created two new experimental stores, one in McKinney in Texas and one in Aurora Colorado , with the wind turbines , photovoltaic panels, etc.. Walmart opens the site Walmart Facts 7 in a movement of public relations to respond to criticism. The group is condemned by the courts in Germany for banning its employees to flirt and locksmiths the establishment of telephone service to denounce each other.
On 26 June 2006 , Walmart announced that the company withdrew completely from the German market. The large market share of discount stores in Germany (around 30%) did not allow Walmart to develop as it did in the United States. The 85 existing stores are sold cna certification to the German supermarket chain Metro AG .
On 12 September 2007 , after 19 years without change, Walmart is launching a new slogan , “Save Money. Live Better. ” 8 , replacing the old “low prices every day” 9 . The company commissioned Global Insight to obtain statistics on the new campaign. According to the report, the competition created by Walmart would allow American families to save 287 billion or U.S. $ 2 500 USD per household 10 , up 7.3% since 2004 11 .
In January 2008 , Walmart opened its second generation store “green” in the Illinois 12 .
In March 2008 , Walmart continues its acquisition of Japanese retailer Seiyu, despite the fact that the American giant of the distribution of profits ever recorded in Japan . Walmart now has over 3,000 stores outside the United States 13 .
On 30 June 2008 , Walmart unveils new logo for the company, with the notable absence of the star between the words “Wal” and “Mart”, and followed by a stylized design. The old logo was used 18.
In November 2010, Wal-Mart Stores is launching a takeover bid of 51% of the distributor South African Massmart at a cost estimated at 1.61 billion euros to gain a foothold on the continent of Africa 14 .
Business organization

The company focuses on three main distribution networks: Wal-Mart Stores Division US, Sam’s Club and Wal-Mart International 15 . The company operates nine stores in different sizes: supercenters , food and drugs , general merchandise stores , bodegas (small traders), cash and carry stores , membership warehouse clubs , apparel stores , soft discount stores and restaurants 15 .
Wal-Mart Stores Division US
The exterior of a typical Wal-Mart Discount Store
The exterior of a typical Wal-Mart Supercenter in Madison Heights in Virginia
Wal-Mart Stores Division is the largest US distribution, representing 67.2% of sales for fiscal year 2006 15 . This segment consists of three store formats in the United States: Discount Stores, Supercenters and Neighborhood Markets. This division also includes Walmart.com, the online auction site. On 6 February 2007 , the company launched a beta version of its service of video on demand 16 , 3000 which sells movies and television series from almost all majors film and television networks 17 .
Wal-Mart Discount Stores
Wal-Mart Discount Stores is a chain of stores ranging in size from 9,200 m 2 to 20,800 m 2 , with an average area of 9400 m 2 15 .
They sell everyday products, and especially of non-food products. These stores sell toys, pet accessories, clothing, accessories for auto, sporting goods, movies and music and more. Many also have a space dedicated to gardening, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical center, a photo lab, and fast food. Some also have a gas station . The first opened in Rogers , in Arkansas in 1963. It was later expanded and remodeled into a Wal-Mart Supercenter 24H.
At 31 October 2007 , there were 988 Wal-Mart Discount Stores in the United States. In 2006, the most active Discount Store in the world was that of Rapid City , in South Dakota .
Wal-Mart Supercenter
Wal-Mart Supercenters is a hypermarket chain variable surface of 9100 m 2 to 24,248 m 2 for older children, with an average of 18,302 m 2 . The Supercenters sell everything sells a Discount Store, but also all the services of a supermarket meats, poultry, frozen norfolk island holidays food, seafood, etc.. Many Wal-Mart Supercenters have other associated services: garden area, pet shop, pharmacy , optical center , photo lab, and many other shops adjoining mobile phones, hairdresser, rent DVDs , banks, fast food , station Service (the majority are from Mobil Oil Corporation (renamed “Murphy United States”), and Sunoco (“Optima”) and Tesoro Corporation (“Mirastar”).
The first Supercenter opened in 1998 in Washington , in Missouri . A Wal-Mart Hypermart similar United States opened in Garland , in Texas . All Hypermart United States were then closed or converted into Supercenters. On October 31, 2007, there were 2,419 Wal-Mart Supercenters in the United States .
Wal-Mart Neighborhood Market
Wal-Mart Neighborhood Market is a chain of food stores in predominantly launched by Wal-Mart in 1998. These stores are designed so opposed to hypermarkets. Size smaller, they are made ​​to “consumers willing to pay to park easily and quickly.” Stores Neighborhood Market offer a variety of products including a complete range of food, drugs, care and cosmetics, as well as a photo development service and a small selection of general merchandise. Usually located in areas that already have a Wal-Mart Supercenter, they support the distribution network. October 31, 2007, there were 128 Neighborhood Market in the United States 18 .
A Neighborhood Markets has an area of about 3900 m 2 , a quarter of the size of a Supercenter in the United States. However, in many countries, free ipad a store of this size is already classified as a supermarket or even as ‘compact hypermarket’. This store employs 80 to 100 people and offers an average 28 000 objects.
Sam’s Club
The Sam’s Club is a new store concept: the warehouse members. In a relatively small (average size of a Sam’s Club is 132,000 square feet 19 ), each store employs 160 to 175 people for 5500 objects (in a Supercenter offers 142,000 19 ). It is necessary to be a member to buy the Sam’s Club. However, single-use coupons can be obtained by newspaper advertisements. Non-members pay an extra 10% on their purchase. For some services, it is not necessary to be a member as optical laboratories, pharmacy or buy alcohol.
The Sam’s Club stores as warehouses, most goods are sold directly on pallets, not on shelves. There are currently 580 Sam’s Club in the United States Discount Judaica products . There it sells jewelry, sunglasses, electronics, flowers, food. Most also has a pharmacy, photo lab, an optician. The Sam’s Club sell items under their own brands: Member’s Mark, Bakers & Chefs, and Sam’s Club. However, it does not sell the Sam’s Choice and Great Value, which are available in Wal-mart classic.
The first Sam’s Club opened in April 1983 in Midwest City, Oklahoma . The name obviously comes from Sam Walton . In 1993 , Wal-Mart bought from Kmart ‘s PACE Membership Warehouse and converts them (not all) in Sam’s Club. Today, Sam’s Club has more than 48 million members in the United States in its 580 stores. There are also hundreds of Sam’s Club International: Brazil, China, Mexico and Puerto Rico. There were six Sam’s Club in Canada, but to compete with Costco and the economic situation in 2009, the administration of Wal-Mart announced February 27, 2009 that it would close six stores Sam’s Club Canada 1 March 2009 20 . Sam’s Club division of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.. has a total income Plastic Storage Bins of $ 37.1 billion in fiscal 2005. The main competitor of Sam’s Club are Costco Wholesale .
Wal-Mart International [ change ]
A Wal-Mart Supercenter in Mexico
Wal wedding rings Mart’s International currently operates 2,980 stores in 14 countries outside the U.S.: Puerto Rico , Canada , Mexico , laser hair removal Britain , China , Brazil , Argentina , Japan .
It represents $ 92 billion in revenue, or 40.7% of company sales for the year 2007 21 .
Canada [ change ]
Main article: Walmart Canada .
Walmart has opened stores in Canada by acquiring from Woolworth ‘s division Woolco . All branches of Woolworth will be purchased by Walmart with the exception of a few stores that were unionized. In 2007 , the company had 278 stores, employing 70,000 Canadians. The headquarters of the Canadian division is Mississauga , Bankruptcy in Ontario . On 8 November 2006 , the first three Supercenters in Canada have opened their doors. Three months later, there were already six Walmart Supercenters in Canada.
Japan
Main article: Seiyu (company) .
Walmart enters Japan in 2002 by buying Seiyu , a company with 400 stores in the territory of Japan. Since the acquisition, Seiyu has spa covers announced losses, up from 20.93 billion yen for the year 2007 22 .
UK [ change ]
Main article: Asda .
The domination of Walmart

Finance
A graph showing the sales of Walmart compared to most large French companies ( Total , AXA …)
In 2006, Walmart was ranked 67 th ​​in terms of profitability ( profit divided by sales ) behind other retailers like Home Depot and Target , but at Costco and Kroger . For fiscal 2006, net income stood at Walmart for 344.992 12.178 billion in revenue (a margin of 3.5%).
The international division of Wal-Mart accounts for 20.1% in terms of rag business. At December 6, 2007, net sales for the 43 weeks of 2007 were 301.5 billion dollars, up 9.6% over the previous year.
In 2009, turnover was 408.21 billion dollars and profits payday loan of 14.34 billion to $ 23 .
The customer of Walmart
Each week, more than 176 million people worldwide are in a Walmart 24 . Customers are mainly for low prices, in conjunction with the Walmart slogan used from 1962 to 2006, “Low prices everyday.” The average income of a client Walmart is less than the national average of 25 and a financial report for 2006 indicates that hcg diet Walmart customers have been affected by the rising cost of gasoline 26 . A survey conducted in 2004, before the presidential election, said that 76% of voters who bought at Walmart this week planned to vote for George W. Bush , while only 23% were inclined to John Kerry 27 . In comparison with other U.S. chains, regular customers of Walmart are most favorable to the Conservative Party 28 .
In 2006, Walmart decided to expand its consumer base, by announcing the end of the strategy “one size fits all” and organizing stores now interchangeably to “reflect EACH of six Demographic groups – African-Americans, the affluent, empty -nesters, Hispanics, suburbanites and rural residents. “. Six months later, the company launched its new slogan “Saving people money So They Can Live Better Lives”. It reflects the three main groups that Walmart formed among its 200 million customers: “brand aspirational” (the low-income people obsessed with brands like KitchenAid ), “price-sensitive affluents” (wealthier customers who enjoy good relations price / quality) and “value-price shoppers” (customers who seek low prices and can not buy more expensive). The group rejected the recommendation of the Association of American families and offered for sale the DVD of the film Brokeback Mountain , a love story between two cowboys in Wyoming .
Administration
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Competition
Walmart dominates the U.S. market for retail .
The group French distribution Carrefour boasts more than 12,500 stores in over 30 countries (totaling a turnover of almost 100 billion euros). This group can not quite be considered a competitor of chiropractic marketing Walmart. Indeed, Walmart has a presence mainly in North America , while Carrefour is notoriously absent from these countries.
Reviews of Walmart

The film story-American Wal-Mart, the retail giant , Rick Young and Hedrick Smith (2004) N a Walmart makes a case study on the social and economic ideology of neo -wide of a country (the U.S.) as a whole. It shows in particular how the majority of providers had to Walmart relocate production to China to meet the specifications required by Walmart on price, which has fostered a growing imbalance (200 billion a year deficit) favor of China in economic exchanges China – United States, and virtually transformed them into “country of the Third World “commodity exporter and importer auto insurance quotes of high-tech manufactured goods. Walmart has indirectly led to the ruin of many small American towns, deprived of their traditional industries, and therefore an impoverishment of growing much of the U.S. population.
Discrimination
In 2001, seven employees of U.S. Wal-Mart to complain gender discrimination , ensuring “paid less than men in comparable positions, despite a higher rating and greater seniority” 29 .
In 2007, a federal judge allows these employees to represent all employees of Walmart since December 1998, implying about 1.5 million people 29 . Worn appeal , the trial is held barely (6 against 5) by the Court of Appeal in San Francisco 29 . Focused again on appeal by the company, the Supreme Court of the United States agrees to consider the case Dec. 6, 2010 29 . The U.S. Supreme Court will decide by June 2011, and say if it allows the continuation of the procedure. Not so much “class action” collective action has taken place in USD.
On June 20, 2011, in a unanimous decision, the court blocks the action 30 .
Anti-union
The slogan of the multinational has changed slightly since its inception from Always the low price – Always , which referred to the best prices, Always Low Prices – Always making reference to the rather low prices in general. The methods for its success are now sources of criticism. For the low prices obtained by an optimal minimization of costs (product and labor). The group is known for very low wages of its employees and its positions very anti-union .
During 40 years of existence, the group has no stores accounted for union representation with the exception of a group of butchers in the United States who managed to unionize their department but was then replaced with pre-packaged meat.
The 1 st May 2007 , Human Rights Watch issued a report on the repression of workers’ rights and trade unionism in the company. Managers are trained and required to combat union organizing or industrial action including legal, which, because of U.S. laws with very low coverage for employees, leads to what the employees were unable to take collective action to assert their rights with respect to wages, hours of work or the fight against gender discrimination 31 .
Germany [ change ]
The anti-union policy of the firm, according to several analysts, caused his loss to Germany, where consumers have shunned the aisles of Walmart 32 .
A film Walmart: The High Cost of Low Price 33 , produced in the United States, denounced the commercial and social practices of the company 34 .
Canada [ change ]
Main article: anti-union Walmart Canada # .
China
In 2006 , following a standoff with the government of China at the opening of a store, Walmart has for the first time been forced to accept union representation of State in its 60 stores 35 .
United States [ change ]
Chicago
When Walmart was preparing to open its first store in the great American city of Chicago , the city decided to implement a law to ensure the humane treatment of employees of large warehouses, including the provision of health insurance and pays a reasonable living in the city. Regulation, being based on policy Costco which had just opened its inaugural store in the city, has led to protests not only from Walmart, but also Sears , Target , Bloomingdale’s and Home Depot . When other department stores threatened to leave the city of Chicago and moved to the suburbs , the city had to abandon its plans to improve the living conditions of workers for trade 36 .
Image Management
On 28 April 2006 , Richard Demsyn, a student 18 years of London (Ontario) , published an article 37 on the website WhiteDust.net denver car accident attorney accusing lobbyists of Wal-Mart to change the article on the company by version in English from Wikipedia to give a positive tone voluntarily 38 . Receiving no formal proof at the outset, the development and use of WikiScanner confirmed later that several contentious changes made ​​to Article English Wal-Mart come from IP addresses associated with the company 39 [ref. insufficient] .

The Court decided in the first instance in a few cases: cases involving the States of the Union, a State or a foreign diplomat. For all other cases, it has an appellate jurisdiction. In any case, its judgments are final. It is generally limited to the most important cases, and in particular, to decide whether the laws of the United States or those of different States, conform to the Constitution, engagement rings which it is the final interpreter. In 1908 , Charles Evans Hughes , then governor of the State of New York , would have said, during an official speech before the Elmira Chamber of Commerce: “The Constitution is what the Supreme Court said that ‘it STD Testing “( the Constitution Is What the Supreme Court Says It Is ). In this, it is also ultimately defines the fundamental rights of citizens, sometimes electric cigarette extensively, sometimes narrowly, and effectively protects.
This power of constitutional review ( judicial review ), which is most of the power of the Supreme Court, is not explicit in the Constitution and the Court is actually awarded in 1803 in its decision Marbury v. Madison . This decision is often presented as a theft, the then President, Thomas Jefferson said that the decision of the Constitution was “a mere object of wax in the hands of the judiciary.” However, at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia , where the Constitution was drafted, some delegates felt that power for granted. It is also mentioned in 1789 by Alexander Hamilton in The Federalist , with broad authority as a text interpretation of the Constitution. It is considered initially legitimate or usurped this power, after two hundred years of practice, now is hardly disputed in principle. The particular use that martial arts denver the Court may make a number of occasions the other hand, is much.
The constitutional review in the United States is made ​​retrospectively , in a concrete and diffuse. ” Looking back “means that takes place after the law was enacted. It is concrete, that is to say that the constitutionality of a statute is considered in the context of a particular case. It is possible that the law is deemed unconstitutional in whole or in part, for reasons of external legality (it was adopted by an authority that did not have the power, such as the Congress legislating in an area reserved for the States) or internal (the content contravenes the Constitution, such as human rights). The Court’s decision applies to parties to the case considered ( inter partes ). It is not intended to repeal the law. However, it sets a precedent that other courts must apply (see rule above ) which makes it ipso facto inapplicable. Finally, control is diffuse, which means that all courts, whether federal or state, not just the Supreme Court may review the constitutionality of a legal standard. For a federal law, it is likely that the game calls make the Supreme Court is called upon to rule, it is less often the case for lower standards. This model of constitutional review is sometimes called American model , as opposed to a model that says European or Kelsenian the name of the Austrian jurist Hans Kelsen . The European model is characterized primarily by a central control, that is to say within payday loan the jurisdiction of a single constitutional court and not all courts. In most countries, the preferred mode of review of constitutionality is the question : the ordinary courts may seize the Constitutional Court if Relevant Life Insurance he has doubts about the constitutionality of a law he is obliged to apply. Despite its name, the Denver Divorce Attorney model is not universal in Europe, where several countries use the American system of diffuse control. Control model as opposed to the U.S. model was, before the intervention of the Constitutional Act No. 2008-724 of 23 July 2008, probably the French system, where the Constitutional Council exercised control only a priori , abstract and centralized. Today, the “priority issue of constitutionality” may be placed in all courts under the State Council or the Court of Cassation, in connection with litigation. The lower courts decide its transmission to the State Council or the Court of Cassation, which can refer the matter to the Constitutional Council. The constitutional review in France can now practice a posteriori.Lorsque the Constitutional Council ruled on the question as to constitutionality and whether a law is declared unconstitutional, it shall terminate on the date the decision of the Constitutional Council, or at a later date fixed by him.
The charge of government by judges
A common criticism of the Court his weight on U.S. federal institutions. From his first stops (Marbury v. Madison), the Court was an instrument reading of the Federal Constitution in favor of the powers of the federal government and at the expense of federal states (up to a recent departure from precedent, United States v. Lopez).
The accusation was especially prevalent during the struggle in the 1930s of Franklin Delano Roosevelt against the scrabble word finder traditional jurisprudence of the Court which refused the application of measures necessary for the release of the 1929 crisis. Indeed, the Supreme Court seems to casino oppose the New Deal , by including freedom of contract claim. The concept of ” government of judges “is an idea after the practice, widespread in the book of the same name of Edward Lambert . The death of some judges allowed Roosevelt to appoint judges favorable to his cause.
The judges of the Supreme Court

The judges of the Supreme Court (October 2010)
Main article: List of judges of the Supreme Court of the United States of America .
Congress fixed by law the number of judges to the Supreme Court: seven originally nine since 1869 , including a chairman. The president is called English Chief Justice (CJ), other Associate Justice , or simply Justice 1 .
The protocol order in the first place the President and other judges follow in order of seniority on the Court. Article III sets their mode of appointment and privileges identical to those of other federal judges: they are appointed for life by the President of the United States , with the consent of the Senate (Senate approval may be refused but few applicants are rejected as well ) so they take their duties as long as they want and their treatment can be reduced during this time.
They can only be removed by Congress after trial by the same procedure of impeachment that applies to the President of the United States, which has never happened to any judge of the Supreme Court.
The impeachment , however, was once voted by the House of Representatives in 1804 against the Justice Samuel Chase , website hosting which was later acquitted by the Senate.
The Constitution imposes no restrictions on who may be appointed. This is usually distinguished jurists. They often argued as a lawyer or as a government car transport company adviser to the Supreme Court, sometimes for important cases. Include Louis Brandeis argued that Muller v. Oregon (in spite of freedom of contract, states can regulate working conditions, at least for women), and Thurgood Marshall who argued Brown v. Board of Education (end of racial segregation in schools). They often held important positions in the judiciary, as federal judges in lower courts, the Supreme Court of State or the Department of Justice. They usually had a militant political activity, sometimes prominent. William Howard Taft , former President of the United States, was appointed President of the Supreme Court in 1921 , Earl Warren , former governor of California, became in 1953 . Charles Evans Hughes , Judge of the Supreme Court 1910 to 1916 , then left her to be a candidate for President of the United States . He returned in 1930 as President of the Court. Only four women were appointed to the Supreme Court and three are currently serving: Sandra Day O’Connor from 1981 to 2006 , Ruth Bader Ginsburg in operation since 1993 , Sonia Sotomayor , in office since 2009 and Elena Kagan since 2010. Only two Black judges were appointed: Thurgood Marshall , appointed in 1967 and Clarence Thomas who succeeded him in 1991 and is still sitting. Judges tend to retire at an older age, possibly when a president from their party occupies the White House. They can then continue to serve in other federal courts. The highly revered Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes has left the Court, in 1932 , at the request of his colleagues and the age of 90, after spending 30 years. More recently John Paul Stevens left the Court at the same age, after spending 35 years.
Judges can be entered individually in an emergency, to order provisional measures. Each judge is assigned one or more springs of federal appellate courts, and the judge responsible for the appellate court from which the case has jurisdiction. t shirt printing He may choose to refer the matter to the Supreme Court in its entirety.

The procedure

The Code of the United States , which is voted by Congress in Title 28 organize the federal court system, in addition to the Constitution. It outlines the operation of the Supreme Court, including its composition, nine judges, six of them forming a quorum. The Code is supplemented by regulations made ​​by the Court itself ( Rules of Court ).
With few exceptions, under Article III, the Court has an appellate jurisdiction. She has a discretionary basis, accepting or refusing to issue a writ of certiorari , a mandate which requires the court has previously considered the case to transmit the file. In practice, little more than 1% of applications are accepted each year is just over 100 in 7000. The Court states in its rules (Rule 10) on what basis it accepts calls: the case must contain a substantial question of law on the Constitution or the law of the United States (known as a federal issue ) and that this issue has not yet been decided, or that the lower court’s decision inconsistent with previous case law. The Court will also be inclined to fill the call if several lower courts (Federal or State) have decided the issue in different ways. The caller wishing to appeal to the Supreme Court to file a written request ( petition for certiorari ) asking him to take the matter under appeal. He summarizes the case, or the federal questions involved, and legal arguments against the decision of the lower court.
The case is accepted if four justices vote in favor. Otherwise, the decision of the lower court is affirmed. The lower court is normally a federal appeals court or the court of last resort of a state. Exceptionally, if the urgency and public interest in a case so warrant, the Court may agree to any decision on appeal after the first stage of the federal courts, the district court ( district court ), bypassing the Court of the call. Finally, the judges of an appellate court may, on the occasion of a case, ask the Supreme Court to decide a federal issue unresolved. The Court can then answer the question or choose to take up the whole affair.
Once the call is accepted, the case is on tailor made suits the docket of the Court ( docket ). The Court sets itself the order of the hearings. The parties involved in the case submit their written arguments ( briefs ). Someone (usually legal, public or private) not party to the case, but interested in the federal question involved may request also submit a brief , as an amicus curiae (friend of the court) and possibly to plead. The Court may on his own initiative seek advice, often the Federal Government, represented by the Department of Justice, or some states, particularly when the validity of their laws is at stake After considering the arguments, the judges set the date the hearing, generally limited to one hour, during which the parties’ lawyers (and sometimes, amici curiae ) present their arguments and answer questions from judges.
Subsequently, the judges meet in closed session and after discussion of the case, conduct a vote. If a tie, the decision of the court below is affirmed, as if there had been no appeal. Otherwise, the judges who voted with the majority of which comes first in protocol order (the president if he voted with the majority, if not, the senior judge of the majority) is among the members of the majority , who will prepare the decision (opinion of the Court, opinion of the Court ).
It sometimes happens that this opinion is not signed. This is called opinion per curiam , for the Court. The opinion, which recalls the case and details the legal reasoning leading to the decision becomes a precedent , which then binds all U.S. courts (it still has, before publication, obtain the agreement of the majority of the Court, otherwise a new judge is appointed to draft it). Judges in accordance with the conclusions, but disagrees with the legal reasoning can join a concurring opinion to the result ( concurring opinion ). The judges disagreed with the decision may attach a dissenting opinion ( Dissenting Opinion ). The views and concoradantes Dissidi Wire Cart Covers have no binding on other courts.
After publication, the case is cited as a form of type Miranda v. Arizona , US 384 436 (1966) , where Miranda is the appellant and the State of Arizona is the respondent, that is to say that Miranda has filed an appeal against the decision of a lower court for Arizona. v. stands for versus , word latin for cons . Stopping in Volume 384 of the collection of judgments of the Supreme Court, noted US, from page 436. It was made ​​in 1966.
The judges of the Supreme Court can also be entered individually for decisions to be provisional, close to the French law referred : procedures for habeas corpus , injunction or temporary reprieve. Except for a stay of execution for capital cases, it is iPhone Unlock unusual that such requests are accepted by the Supreme Court, which considers them to be presented to lower courts.
Key elements of jurisprudence

In the development of its jurisprudence, the Court has relied in particular on five key constitutional provisions.
” No State shall enact [...] [...] no retroactive law, or that would affect the obligation of contracts.
the United States Constitution, Article I, section 10. ”
The clause “contract” has been widely used in the past by the Court. Originally designed to guarantee the rights of landowners against their debtors, it served as a legal basis to oppose the great laws of economic interventionism of the New Deal . It is only rarely used today.
” No person shall [...] be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law.
Constitution of the United States, V th and XIV th amendments’
The “due process of law” has been an important litigation. Stated in the V th Amendment to the Federation and in the XIV th to the States, it has been greatly expanded and includes all cases where the individual is opposite an unfavorable decision. This clause has allowed the Court to give the U.S. a real criminal, since it applies not only to administrative and legislative acts but also the decisions of various courts.
” No State [...] deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws
of the United States Constitution, XIV th Amendment ”
The equal protection clause of the laws , also included in the XIV th Amendment, has its origin in the will of the Federation to prevent the southern states to reinstate slavery. It allows now to prevent racial discrimination or political.
The principle of respect for the rights enumerated in the amendments to the Constitution, mainly the I st and XIV e has allowed the court to extend its case largely given the variety of areas they cover. The case of the flag or the questions about abortion and enter the scope of rights.
The division of powers between federal and federated States has consistently yielded many principles. The Court greatly expanded the powers of the federal government at the expense of the States for many decades to establish its legitimacy. Its decisions are now more nuanced.
Building and police

The building of the Supreme Court
Articles: building of the Supreme Court of the United States and Police of the Supreme Court of the United States .
The court since 1935 has its own building, purpose built, near the U.S. Capitol in Washington DC. Before the court sat in the old Senate Chamber in the Capitol. In 1929, the President of the Court (and former U.S. President) William Howard Taft got the court to have its own building to mark a distance with the Congress as an independent branch of the federal government. Since then, it has also its own police protection.